The Origin and the development of Abhidhamma
The scholars mentioned Abhidhamma can be separated into two main groups;
1. Those two stanzas that Abhidhamma the Buddha’s teaching.
2. Abhidhamma is not a Buddha’s teaching.
The scholars represented the two groups;
Generally selected the stanzas are given in Cullavagga Pali,
Upāli vinayam pucchi suttā nanda panditam
pitakāni tīni sangitim akum su jina sāvakā
The scholars those who wanted to prove that Abhidhamma is a Buddha’s teaching highlighted the first two lines of stanzas, Upāli vinayam pucchi suttā nanda panditam.
And then they took the third line which a stage that there are three pitakas considering the third line of the stanzas they prove that the three pitakas namely;
Vinay, sutta and Abhidhamma were reheard at the Third Buddhist Council those who wanted to say that Abhidhamma is not a Buddha’s teaching select only first two lines and they do not take the third line. Accordingly they prove that at the Third Buddhist Council only Dhamma and Vinaya were reheard.
Professor Sumanpāla Galmangoda and many other scholars that said that Abhidhamma is a development of early Buddhist teaching the process development of Abhidhamma can be explained under Three Headings,
1. As a process of systematization of the Buddha’s teachings.
2. As a process of searching for a reliable basics for human actions, responsibility and rebirth.
3. As a process of searching methodology for accurately interpreting the early Buddhist discourses.
As an example for the First Heading, Navanga Satthu Sāsana (the nine fold teachings of Buddha), dhamma and vinaya pitaka could be mentioned the Navanga satthu sāsana are;
1. Sutta
2. Geyya
3. Veyyakarana
4. Gāthā
5. Udāna
6. Itivuttaka
7. Jātaka
8. Abhutadhamma
9. Vedalla
In early Buddhism there were two Kinds of discourses;
1. Neyyattha
2. Nītattha
Neyattha suttas are conventional teaching “Sammuti Desanā”.
Nītattha suttas are saluted teaching “Paramatha Desanā”.
As a result Nītattha sutta, Abhidhamma was developed.
The second Heading mentioned that Abhidhamma was developed as a result of abstracting doctrinal teaching from discourses.
The abstracted teachings are;
5 aggregates (panchakhanda)
4 great elements (Cātarū mahabhuda rūpa)
5 senses (panchidreyana)
12 bases (dvādasāyatana)
18 elements (atthāradātu)
Nibbana the final extinction
The Third Heading is methodology. The methodology regarding the dhamma can be seen with the early Buddhism. The sutta pitaka that was composed at the First Buddhist council is a systematized process the best examples in these regards are;
Sangīti and Dasuttara of D.N, Atthaka and Pārāyana of S.N and whole Anguttara nikaya can be mentioned. Following these Three methods of Abhidhamma was developed the Third Buddhist Council is a council where the Abhidhamma pitaka composed. At the council Abhidhamma pitaka was made with Seven Texts (Pakarana);
1. Dhammasangani
2. Vubbhanga
3. Dhātukathā
4. Puggalapaňňatti
5. Yamaka
6. Kathāvatthu
7. Mahapatthāna
Controversies of Abhidhamma
The Third Buddhist Council this council where the controversies arise was discussed before the Theravada monks always discuss next existence. The monks understood the next life it’s occurred because of different reasons because of that they could not come to us final conclusion. The monks began to separate into several groups. The most prominent groups of these schools are four in numbers,
1. Sarvāstivāda
2. Sammitiya
3. Vibbajjayavāda
4. Sautrāntika
Venerable Moggaliputtatissa thera and Sthaviravāda monks held the Third Buddhist Council. The aim of this council was eradication of heretical view arise against Sthaviravāda tradition. However, though the Sthaviravāda monks stated that all heretical views were eradicated in the council, each of other groups of monks stated and spread their own views.
Sarvāstivādin said that the five aggregates transmigrate from this life to next life. As the view the aggregates can take the life by changing its form. However, the Sthaviravāda monks did not accept these views and further they mentioned that it could not. The Sarvāstivādin proved their views giving and example. The example is a white cloth becomes a red cloth putting red color.
Earliest that cloth was white and now it becomes red. They asked whatever the color of cloth was changed, its shape did not change. Therefore, they are argued with Sthaviravāda that though the color of cloth was changed its clothness. In the same way the five aggregates transmigrate from existences to existences by changing its form.
Another group of monks separated from the Sthaviravāda tradition is Simmitiya. Another name given to them is Pudgalavāda. Pudgalavādin was with views that though the five aggregates disappear with the death, the concept of Pudgala can take the next life. Therefore as they believed, the Pudgala is transmigrating from the existence to existence. According to the Pudgalavādin the concept of Pudgala can respond for deeps done by the individual.
Another group of monks is Vibbajjayavādin. They were called with the name because they accept the classification. Later the Theravada monks also named as Vibbajjayavādin classifies the individual until the concept of soul was disappeared. That is how Vibbajjayavādin spreads their teachings with regard through individual.
Sautrāntikas are the group of monks separated from the Sthaviravādin tradition. Having seen the controversial method arises in Theravada Abhidhamma, they rejected the Abhidhamma. Though they rejected the Abhidhamma they always discussed and answered to the questions appear through Abhidhamma. Later these Sautrāntikas were named as Ksanavādin. They were called ksanavādin because they accepted Uppāda and Vaya, and they rejected Thiti. Therefore the transmigrating nothing but the process of uppāda and Vaya (arising and cessation). In this way later schools of monks interpreted the Buddha teachings in different ways. The controversies regarding the Abhidhamma appear in the Sassana.
The Analysis and Synthesis of the Dhammās
The first discourse delivered by the Buddha is Dhammacakkappavatana sutta. In the sutta, Buddha rejected the two extremes that are eternalism and annihilationlism. During the time of the Buddha there were 62 dogmas (wrong Views) all of those dogmas classified into two,
1. Sāsvatavāda = eternalism
2. Vucchedavāda = annihilationlism
Eternalist believed that being is external and they introduced the concept of soul which goes from existence to existence. And Annihilationalists believed that there is no life after death. Eternalists followed the practiced of Attakilamatanuyoga (self-mortification), whole annihilationlists followed the practiced of Kāmasukalikānuyoga (self-indulgence). In the sutta, Buddha started the following,
“Dve me bhikkhave antā pabbajitena na sevi tabba”
According to quotation given above, the meaning is that there are two extremes that should not be followed by the renounce. In this way, Buddha was able to reject the concept of Atmavāda (the theory of soul) and Anatmavāda (the theory of soullessness). The method of analysis was used by the Buddha, in many suttas to reject the concept of soul. And method of synthesis was used by the Buddha for rejection of non-soul (Anatmavāda).
The Theory of Analysis
In early Buddhism, theory of analysis can be seen in many of discourses. Buddha wanted to only the individual to reject the concept of soul. Buddha did that using many classifications of individual. Among those classifications the followings are prominent,
1. Nama and Rūpa = name and form
2. Pancakkhanda = five aggregates
3. Cha āyatana = six senses
4. Dvādasāyatana= twelve bases
5. Atthārasadhātu = eighteen elements
In Abhidhamma, above mentioned classifications are discussed since Abhidhamma has been originated through the early Buddhist teaching and Abhidhamma is the systematization made to the Abhidhamma all these mentioned above method discussed in the Vibhanga, the second text of Abhidhamma the text Vibhanga discussed them following the three methods;
1. Suttanbhājaniya
2. Abhidhammabhājaniya
3. Paňhapuchakanāya
In the suttanbhājaniya the classifications are given according to the early Buddhist teaching, in the Abhidhammabhājaniya the classifications are given according to Abhidhamma. Finally each those factors discussed are given in the form of question and answer.
The text Vibhanga discussed the following topics,
1. Khanda
2. Ăyatana
3. Dhātu
4. Sacca
5. Indriya
6. Paccayakāra
7. Sātipatthāna
8. Sammappadana
9. Iddhipāda
10. Bojjanga
11. Magga
12. Jhāna
13. Appaňňā
14. Sikkhāpada
15. Patisambhidhā
16. Ňaňňa
17. Khuddhakavattha
18. Dhammahadaya
In Abhidhammabhājaniya the text Vibhanga discussed the above mention Eighteen topics using three methods such as Suttanbhājaniya, Abhidhamma and Panhapuchakanaya. Because of the sect of study we should discuss further few Headings.
Dhātu Vibhanga
In the Dhātuvibhanga, eighteen elements are discussed depending on the three Headings Suttanbhājaniya …….etc. according to the Suttanbhājaniya the Eighteen Elements are;
1. Patavi
2. Ăpo
3. Tejo
4. Vāya
5. Ăkāsa
6. Viňňana
7. Sukha
8. Dukkha
9. Somanassa
10. Domanassa
11. Upekkhā
12. Avijja
13. Kāma
14. Vyāpāda
15. Vihimsā
16. Nekkamma
17. Avyāpāda
18. Avihimsā
According to Abhidhammbhājaniya Eighteen Elements are;
1. Cakkhu
2. Rūpa
3. Cakkhuviňňana
4. Sota
5. Saddha
6. Sotaviňňana
7. Ghāna
8. Ghanda
9. Ghānaviňňana
10. Jivhā
11. Rasa
12. Jivhāviňňana
13. Kāya
14. Potthatta
15. Kāyaviňňana
16. Mana
17. Dhamma
18. Manaviňňana
The Theory Synthesis
According to the early Buddhist teaching everything happens according to the theory of dependent origination. The formulas are;
1. Imasmim sati idam hoti
2. Imasmin asati idam na hoti
3. Imassa uppāda idam uppajjati
4. Imassa nirodha idam nirujjhati
1. When this is, that is.
2. When this is not, that is not.
3. When this arises, that arises.
4. When this ceases, that ceases.
In early Buddhism the interrelatedness among five aggregates are mentioned and also relation between name and form are mentioned in Aggivacagotta sutta, it is mentioned the reality of the world.
Abhidhamma also follows the same method used to the Sutta Pitaka. Depending on the cause and effect theory, interrelatedness among each of classification is mentioned. The text Patthana introduced different relations under 24 relations the reason for arising it is called Paccaya. In Abhidhamma there are many Paccayas therefore, those paccayas are given under 24 headings. According to the content we can discuss few those headings.
1. Hetu Paccaya
Hetu means the root the characteristic of the root is to stay as the root to help for the arising of a Dhamma. The roots are, Lobha, Dosa and Moha, and Alobha, Adosa and Amoha.
The roots belong to kāmāvacara spheres are Lobha, dosa and Moha the remanding are Alobha, Adosa and Amoha are belonged to all the spheres again.
These six kinds of root are classified under following heading;
1. Kusala
2. Vipāka
3. Kriyā
4. Akusala
When the consciousness contacts with a wholesome deed there arises KusalaCitta in this way 21 consciousnesses arise as a result of these root causes but they are consciousnesses that do not have root causes. They called Ahetu Citta.
2. Ărammana Paccaya
We get objects through the senses because of those senses their respective objects we can get feelings. Therefore, all the 89 Cittas arise because of Ărammanas (objects). In the text Patthana 7 Ărammanas are mentioned;
1. Kusala
2. Akusala
3. Vipāka
4. Kriyā
5. Rūpa
6. Nibbāna
7. Paňňati
3. Antara Paccaya
The nature of the world is Uppāda, Thithi and Bhavanga always we can get consciousnesses because of a suitable consciousness. For example, after a wholesome consciousness, there arises wholesome resultant consciousness (Kusala Vipāka Citta). Usually the tree grows because it was a plant. Before the plant it was seed, in other words the process of tree is seed become a plant, the plant becomes a tree. When the individual attains Nibbāna by following a method. For the attainment of Nibbāna he should usually follow the following stage;
1. Jhāna consciousness
2. Gotrabhū consciousness
3. Magga consciousness
4. Phala consciousness
Further Antara Paccaya should concern towards the Nibbāna.
As a being one gets Kāmāvacara kusala citta. Than he gets it own Vipāka. After the Kāmāvacara appears he touches the Rūpāvacara appears after that Arūpāvacara appears. Lohutara resultant consciousness arises because of ňana sampayutta, kāmāvacara kusala citta.
Four Ultimate Realities
According to the Abhidhamma existence is a process of mental and physical states. The world which appears as a unity is plurality of constitutions in reality. They are called real elements of existence because they are the result of analyzing the thing in the world they are called real because they can not be analyzed further into any realities.
In theTheravada Abhidhamma, this real element of existence classified into three Groups;
1. Citta = mind
2. cetasikā
3. Rūpa = Form
None of them can exist independently. Mind and mental concomitants have 4 kinds of relationship÷
1. They arise together
2. They perish together
3. They take the same of objects
4. They arise in the same senses organ.
Mind and mental concomitants always arise in connection with the physical senses of the body. Therefore, mind and form never exist separately.
1. Citta
Abhidhammatthasanghadipani defined the term citta as derived root citta. Citta means to think according to the text the ways of thinking are Three Folds;
1. Ihana Cinta = thinking and endowed this kind of thinking comes in the Vitakha (Initial Applicant).
2. Vijānana Cinta = thinking and endowed with understanding these applies to Viňňāna.
3. Pajānana Cinta = thinking and endowed with realization these applies to Paňňāna
The second one of the above mention is applicable to the term citta because it is defined of having the senses of (Understanding the object). The text further stated that the term citta in thye Abhidhammatthasangha is used in the sense of Viňňāna.
Visudhimagga states the term citta, mana and viňňāna refer to the same thing, consciousness (the word viňňāna citta and mana are one in the meaning). However, it seems that is three terms have been used to indicate several functions or states of the mind.
Atthasālinī states that the stages of mind as follow (in the exposition of consciousness, consciousness is verity nature. Mind (Citta) is so called because its known measure of object and mental action (Manasa) is just mind).
Atthasālinī further states that (a single consciousness is introduced by three names;
1. Mana in sense of misery.
2. Viňňāna in sense of discrimination
3. Dhātu in the philosophical sense of ultimate reality.
In later Abhidhamma literature the term citta has been referred to Viňňāna to indicate the general meaning of consciousness.
Citta has been described in detail under 4 different Meanings÷
1. Citta as an adjective (variegated)
2. Citta as a noun (Thinking)
3. Citta as to collect
4. Citta as protecting of what is collected?
The above mention 4 meanings are given in Abhidhammatthasangha Sannaya. Atthasālinī explains all those meanings as follow. (By consciousness is meant that which thing of is object, and it aware variously or in as much as this word consciousness is common to all stages or classes of consciousness, that which is known as worldly, moral, immoral or the great in operative, is term consciousness because it arises itself in a series, or it on series or continually by way of apperception in processes of thought and the resultant is also term consciousness because it is accumulated by kamma and corruption. Moreover, all for classes are terms consciousness because the arrange variety circumstance the meaning of consciousness many also be understood from its capacity of producing a variety or diversity of effect).
In all many all the commentaries, what have been described again and again as the various meaning of the term citta closely related to the about definition the meaning variegation is applicable to citta for several reasons. All the varieties of thing in the world are produced simply as the result of thinking, thought processed production. Therefore, the term citta is used in sense of making various things.
All the classes of art in the specified or generated are achieved by the mind.
1. Cetasika
The term Cetasika is used in the sense of originating in consciousness, accompanied with consciousness. According to this definition Cetasika is not something different from consciousness but comprises characteristic of it. This fact is further classified by the common definition of Cetasika with comprises 4 characteristics;
1. Those arise together
2. Perish together
3. Arise from the same way
4. Take the same object.
The mental stages that bear these characteristics are generally considered to be 52 as these stages arise and perish together with consciousness; this characteristic does not apply to the material-dhamma (Rūpa). Does a material-dhamma last longer than a material-dhamma. In particular the second characteristic mentioned above going to different spheres it from material element. The Avinibhogarūpas (inseparateable material-dhamma) which arise and perish together with consciousness can process the first and second characteristic of mental stage. Therefore, the third is given to different spheres from Avinibhogarūpa further, to a voice to dowel further this Cetasika arises on different verses at the same with consciousness, the 4 characteristics are given.
The Cetasika
1. Phassa = contact
2. Vedana = feeling
3. Saňňā = perception
4. Cetana = volition
5. Ekaggatā = one-pointedness
6. Jivitindriya = mental life faculty
7. Manasikāra = Attention
The above mentions 7 mental dhammas are called Sabbacitta sādhārana (Universal). These Cetasikas are common to all the 89 consciousnesses as they arise with them together.
The Cetasika can be defined as (that which is made by mind) or as (that which arises from the mind0. but if Cetasika defined in this way, its meaning applies even to Citta sabhutthāna rūpa (mind born material phenomena). Therefore, cetasika is to be described as comprising 3 Groups÷
1. Vedana = feeling
2. Saňňā = perception
3. Sankkhāra = mental formation
Cetasika as derivative noun (Tadhata) has 3 meanings;
1. That is arisen in the mind
2. That which is associated
3. That which is engaged.
The second definition is given to these group wrong conceptions whether happiness for suffering and so four without wins and further they are permanents.
According to 4 ways of definition the characteristic of Cetasika should be considered.
1. The characteristics of Cetasika association with mind.
2. Its function is not to arise without mind.
3. Its manifestation is giving the same object as mind.
4. Its proximate course is the arising of mind.
When it considers all the details given to Cetasika, it is clear that Cetasika has come to being as the result of the explanation of the different functional characteristics of consciousness.
In the Analysis of five aggregates, Viňňāna represented, Citta, Viňňāna, Vedana, Sankkhāra represented cetasika. In Abhidhamma what has been described under Heading Citta is the classification of division of consciousness according to Bhūmī (spheres), Jāti (kind)…..etc.
It seems that under heading Cetasika, the eternal functional characteristics of consciousness have been described separately. Therefore, these two Abhidhammic concepts, namely, Citta and Cetasika are but one and the same concept that is consciousness. It appears that division into Citta and Cetasika were made for the convenient of definition and not because they were two clearly separate entities in reality. This is shown by the four characteristics of Cetasika explains about.
It is interesting to know that some Cetasikas themselves can be considered as different characteristics of consciousness rather than as different Cetasika. For example, Manasikāra (attention), Cittekaggata (one pointedness of mind), Cittapassadhi (tranquility of mind)…..etc. in defining some of cetasikas it seems that what is presented the characteristic of mind. This is illustrated by following example.
Uddhacca (means nature of resltessness that is the characteristic restlessness of mind). Chanda (conation) means nearly mind’s desire of hanging on to. Thina (sloth) means characteristic of non-adaptability of mind).
Thus, Cetasika signify some functional characteristics of first reality that is consciousness. In this way Professor Sammanapala Golamangoda stated that the different between Citta and Cetasika can not be clearly mentioned.
Rûpa (matter)
In the early Buddhism, Rùpa was one of five aggregates. With the development of Abhidhamma it is developed as one of the four ultimate realities. That is quite considerable point. Because in the early Buddhism, Rûpa was conventional truth. Buddha explained the nature of the world according to the conventional form of the world. However, later developed Abhidhamma realized Svalakhhāna of the five aggregates as the result of those five aggregates were grouped under four categories of four ultimate realities (Paramatha Dhamma).
Being is a combination of both psycho and physico. Rûpa is a material form the Being (world). It represents the physical nature of the world and being.
Professor Y. Karunādāsa comparative studies the matter with other Buddhist schools. Therefore, this is the most valuable research in this subject. The Abhidhamma concept of the Rûpa represents a physical aspect of the person or individual and world of experience. The common definition of Rûpa, as stated in the cannon as well as in the commentary is (Matter means that which is subject to molestation). Here molestation means becoming transform with effect of all cold, heat ….etc.
That means arising in another form when the opposite condition such as cold and heat are presented.
Professor Y. Karunādāsa lists seven meanings of the term Rûpa as recorded by the two celebrate commentators Buddhaghosa and Dhammapala Thera,
1. Rûpakkhanda = material aggregates
2. Sarîra = physical body of a living being
3. Vanna = colour
4. Santhāna = form
5. Kasina nimitta = the object of meditating
6. paccaya = condition, cause
7. Sabhāva = nature
Rûpas comprise with two groups÷
1. Primary = Bhûta
2. Secondary = Upādāya
The Rûpa altogether are 28 in number. All these Rûpas are of one nature according to eight characteristics:
1. Ahetuka = rootless
2. Sāsava = with defilement
3. Sapaccaya = causal
4. Sankhata = cause, condition
5. Lokiya = world, mundane
6. Kāmāvaccara = pertaining sensuous sphere
7. Anāramana = objectless
8. Appahātabha = can’t be eradicated.
Rûpas are called Ahetuka because they are having no root such as non-greed, non-hatred and non-delusion…..etc.
Sāsava means that the being connected with defilements, which arise regarding themselves.
Sapaccaya means that the being related their condition, kamma, citta….etc.
Sankhata means that the being is condition by causes.
Lokiya means that the being engaged with the world of five aggregates.
Kāmavaccara means that the being is subject to graving.
Anāramana means not having an object like mental element.
Appahātabha means that which can’t be eradicated gradual.
Professor Y. Karunādāsa says after discussion the Nippanarûpa (all these different teams combined to show only those elements, describes as Nippanarûpas are true Rûpadhamma. Nippanarûpa means the rûpa they are arisen because of the causes and kamma.
Accordingly Nippanarûpa has four ways of defilement:
1. The characteristic of Rûpa is molestation
2. It function is scattering
3. If manifestation is Abyākata (can’t explain)
4. It proximate cause is consciousness.
NIBBĂNA
The final goal of Buddhism is nibbana when it considers with early discourses, thee are different with Abhidhamma. Acocording to early Buddhist discourses, the nibbana is the complete detachment from the defilements. In the early Buddhist discourses explain nibbana. They used word of negation. However, in Abhidammist interpretation the commentators have made and attempted to describe it in the positive was thereby categoring it as a real dhamma.
In Visuddhimagga there presents a quotation from the discourse which includes several expressions couched in negative terms,
“Bhikkhu, in so far as there are dhammas whether formed or unformed, fading away is pronounced the best of them, that is to say, disillusionment of vanity, the illumination of thirst the absolute of reliance, the termination of the round, the destruction of craving, fading away, cessation and nibbana”.
Commenting on it the author said that Virāga means not nearly “fading away of attachment”, but it implies and unconditioned dhamma.
Therein, fading away is not mere absence of greed, but rather it is that conformed dhamma which, while given the names disillusionment of vanity……..etc.
In the close of “that is to say, the disillusionment of vanity, nibbana, it treated basically as fading away”.
Abhidhammāvatāra also contributes to the above idea. According to it, to say that “there is no one nature called nibbana can be obtained by the person follow the relevant practices and investigates it through the eyes of wisdom. Something should not be denied nearly because untrained person (Putthujjana) does not obtain it.
Craving (Tanhā) is called Vāna in the sense of weaving or combining the dhamma …..Etc. the separation from that Vāna or Tanhā is designed by term nibbana (Ni+Vāna = nibbana).
The Visudhimagga elaborates on this;
“It is called nibbana because it has gone away from, has escaped from, is dissociated from, craving which has acquired in common uses the name Vāna, because by insuring successive becoming, craving serves as a joining together, a binding together, of the four kinds of generation, five destinies, seven stations”.
While mentioning that nibbana means to be free from craving which is called Vāna, the Abhidhammatthasangha presents two characteristics of it as follow,
“Nibbana however, it is termed supreme mundane, it to be realized by the wisdom of the four paths. It becomes an object to the path and fruit, and is called nibbana because it is departure from cord-like craving. Nibbana is one fold according to its intrinsic. According to the way it is two folds namely the element of nibbana with and without the substrate remaining, it is three folds according to it different aspects namely, void, signless and longing free”.
There are other three divisions of nibbana it is Sûñña (void), because it is devoid of attachment, hatred and delusion either by way of object or of accompaniment Animita (signless) as it is free of the signs such as attachment and hatred. It is Appanihita (longing free), as it is free from longing such as attachment and hatred. Nibbana is also described by some other names as Accuta (deathless), Accanti (exceeding the end), Asanghata (unconditioned) and Anuttara (matchless).
The commentators have made and attempted to describe nibbana as having it on nature too, as they have described this other dhammas as being either mental or material. The earth element has headness as its own characteristics by explaining nibbana as a dhamma possessing its own nature they wanted to prove it as a real stage and disprove the theory that it is mere voidness. For this reason, nibbana has also been explained according to four ways of definition:
1. Characteristic of nibbana is pacification
2. Its function is making deathlessness
3. Its fruit is signlessness
4. Its proximate course is renunciation.
Sammuti and Paramatta
(Conventional form of knowledge and niibana)
Sammuti and Paramatta were developed in the middle and late Upanishada. Therefore, Sammuti and Paramatta have long history from the Upanishada period up to peak development of Abhidhamma, two truths are discussed by the Buddhist and Non-Buddhist scholars the two folds development of Buddhism is Theravada and Mahayana, not only in the Theravada tradition but also in the Mahayana tradition, Sammuti and Paramatta were accepted. Nāgarjuna stated dharma by resorting two kinds of truth namely,
1. Lokasamvrtisattya
2. Paramāthasattya
The scholars Bernard mentioned that a criterion of truth is corresponded between the subjective world of thought and objective word of form. Murti mentions absolutism is committed to the doctrine of two truths according to the Upanishada teaching is “Brahma”.
B. K. Matilal mentions three definitions regarding Sammutisattya as it was given by Chantrakīrti,
1. The complete covering.
2. The existence
3. Worldly behaviors.
Nāgarjuna explains the two truths as mutual connections between the two “Without relying on convention the absolute truth is not preached, without relying on the absolute truth Nirvana can not be realized”. “The Paramatta is in fact the unalterable, unthinkable and unteachable”.
According to Yogācāra tradition there we can see threefold reality such as,
1. Parikalpa = the conceptual world
2. Paratantra = relative world
3. Parinispanna = the ultimate world.
We consider the world of Parikalpa, we take unreal object as real. Paratantra means when we take the world as form by the cause and condition it becomes Paratantra world.
Parinispanna world means the ultimate world. That is because we take the voidness.
Vaibhāsikās also accepted twofold truth such as,
1. Changeability
2. Unchangeability
Changeability means the nature of changing for example pot would change but Vedanā never changes just like Rûpavedanā ……etc.
Unchangeability means the notion of something does not disappear that means whatever appears in the world is unchangeability.
Professor K.M. Jayathilake searching the pali nikaya stated that no clear distinction between the two truths. This is no positive evidence to prove the acceptance of two truths. According to him, two truths were added later with the development of Abhidhamma. When it considers the early Buddhist teaching we can see the places where the Buddha spoke on two truths.
In the Puppa sutta of Samyutta Nikaya, Buddha has mentioned the following statement “if the wise people said that the world is ultimate, I said the wise world is ultimate. If the wise people said the world depends on convention, I said that the world depends on convention”.
With the development of commentaries there emerged for fourfold social of knowledge:
1. Sutta
2. Suttānuloma
3. Ăcariyavāda
4. Attanomati
Sutta means the tripitaka.
Suttānuloma means four Mahapadesas,
1. Buddhapadesa
2. Mahatheropadesa
3. Sambahulatherapadesa
4. Ekatherāpadesa
Ăcariyavāda means the views of commentators.
Attanomati means one’s own understand.
Gaurinātha sastri states with regard to the two truths “the relationship between language and reality it perhaps is also true as far as the Buddha explanation of reality and convention are concerned”.
In spite of its limitations, human language is a useful instructment in the hand of thinkers. Because though it may be false to express the reality in full and gives only pale. It is ended indeed and pointer to truth”.
There is no clear evidence to prove that Buddha teachings are based on the theory of two truths. But it is possible that certain teaching formed the bases upon which the commentators formulated the theory of reality. The suttas in the nikaya are collections of the discourse preach to various kinds of people on different occasions. When we examined them we find many teachings that could be assumed to have been influential in the emerged of theory of reality in the later period.
Generally the canonical Arahantship or similar stage of final reference referees to something that can not fully explain by meant of conventional of language the following statement on nibbana is given below for as an example. This is quoted from Niddesa Pali,
“Monks, there is not born (Ajāta), not-become (Abhûta), not-made (Akata) and not-compounded (Asanghata).
Monks, if that not-born, not-become, not-made and not-compounded were not, there would be apparent no escape from this, here that is born, become, made and compounded. But sin.
Monks, there is and not-born, not-become, not-made and not-compounded. Therefore, the escape from this. Here is born, become, made and compounded is apparent”
In the above passage with is definitely referring to the states of Nibbāna the state is described in negative term. This is not due lack of birth but because the conventional occur of language is not capable of describing the absolute stage with is beyond the world (Lokutara). It is clear that Nibbana comes under the supreme mundane and all condition phenomenas come within the mundane level. However, the stages of Nibbana have to explain through conventional language. Convention is nearly a meant or a medium of approaching reality.
The commentary on Kathāvatu points out the following facts in regard to two truths.
“The talk of Buddha is two fold as Sammuti and Paramatha. The talk of being, person, God, Brahma… etc is conventional talk (Sammutigathā). The talk of impermanent, suffering, Soullessness, aggregates, sense bases, mindfulness, right effort… etc is ultimate or absolute talk (paramathagathā). If someone is able to understand reality through conventional talk such as of being, the Buddha instructed him in these terms at the very out set. If someone is able to understand reality through absolute terms such as impermanent…etc.
He instructed him through absolute terms to the person who capable of understanding through conventional terms, he doesn’t give instruction by meant of absolute terms at the beginning. Having instructed first in conventional terms, he later instructed him in absolute terms”.
The doctrine of two kinds of knowledge, the higher and lower in Buddhism, in the doctrine of two kinds of truth, conventional truth and absolute truth are founded. However, in the Pali nikaya there is no distinction between these two kinds of truth.
The two kinds of discourse, Nītatta and Neyyatta are being found in the Pali canon. Nītatta means the direct speech while Neyyatta means indirect speech. In Anguttara Nikaya, the importance of understanding these two fold. Suttas are given it is said that the one who confuses with the two Suttas misinterpreted the word’s of the Buddha it further gives thus,
“He who represents a Sutta of indirect meaning as a Sutta of direct meaning and one who represents a Sutta of direct meaning as a misinterpreted the Buddha words”.
However, in the canon no examples are given for these two kinds of Sutta. Commentaries have explained those two Suttas as follow,
“A Sutta of the form, “there is one individual, O monks, there are two individuals, O monks, there are three individuals… etc is a Sutta of indirect meaning. Although, here the Buddha speaks of “there is one person…etc. it seems that there is no individual in the absolute sense. But a person because of his folly may take this as a Sutta direct meaning and would argue that the Tathāgata would not have said “there is one individual …etc”, unless a person existence in the absolute sense”. If the Buddha explained everything is impermanent that means there is nothing available as permanent that is the Sutta of direct meaning. But because of one’s folly he takes this Sutta as an indirect Sutta, he misinterpreted the words of the Buddha.
Professor K.M. Jayathaleka in his stage, early Buddhist theory of knowledge, states the two truths evolved by following Nītatta and Neyyatta Sutta.
Theory of Perception
The perception means the way of perceiving the world through the sense. There are five senses accepted in Buddhism. There are ÷
1. Eye
2. Ear
3. Nose
4. Tongue
5. Body
The respective object of the senses are÷
1. Form
2. Sound
3. Smell
4. Taste
5. Touch
Perception, in other words are the knowledge what we get through the sense. The perception is explained in the Mahatthipadopama and Madupindika of Majjhima nikaya, Buddha has explained that there should be three factors for the perception. There are÷
1. An unimpaired internal sense organ of sight.
(Ajjhattikam cakkhu apparibhinnam hoti)
2. Internal visible form entering into the field vision
(Bhāhirāca rûpā āpātham āgacchanti).
3. An appropriate of act of attention on the part of the mind.
(Tajjo ca samannāhāro hoti).
When these conditions are satisfied, it is said that “there is a manifestation of these kinds of perception”.
(Viññāna bhāgassa pātabhāvo hoti).
According to explanation given above, we can see how origin of sense-cognation occurs. For the perception, therefore, need three factors such as sense-organ, respective object and the respective consciousness. An example for the perception of eye is given below÷
1. Eye
2. Form
3. Eye-consciousness
With the development of Abhidhamma, there appear Cetasika. Under classification of Cetasika Aññasamānas are given. The Aññasamāna means ethical variable mental factors are also classified into two categories÷
1. Sabbacitta Sādhāra = Universal
2. Pakinnaka = occational
The cetasika sabbacitta sādhāras are arisen with each and every consciousness. According to Theravada Abhidhamma, there are 89 cittas. Therefore, Sabbacitta sādhāra arises with all those 89 cittas. Whether the consciousness Akusala, Ahetuka or Sobhana (unwholesome rootless beautiful). With these cittas Sabbacitta Sādhāra arises. Therefore, for the perception the most reliable cetasikas are the sabbacitta Sādhāra. There are 7 Sabbacitta sādhāras÷
1. Passa = contact
2. Vedanā = feeling
3. Saññā = perception
4. Cetana = volition
5. Ekaggata = one pointedness
6. Jivitindriya = mental life faculty
7. mahasikāra = attention
With development Abhidhamma commentary composes. In the commentary the doctrinal teaching given in the Pakaranas were explained by the commentators. As the result of these explanations new teaching appeared for example Bhavanga consciousness, Citta-Vithi.
In Athasālinī Citta-Vithis are discussed other names given for Vithi is 17 thought moments. The purposes introducing these Citta-Vithis are explaining the interrelatedness among the Citta. In Abhidhamma, 89 Cittas are introduced. Though Cetasikas were introduced to explain the contentious existence of Cittas it wasn’t more reliable for the task. Therefore, commentaries were eager to introduce 17 thought moments with the introductions these moments, synthetic existences of the thought processes are proved. The 17 thought moments are summarized up to 14. There are namely:
1. Patisandhi = rebirth-linking
2. Bhavanga = life continuum
3. Avajjana = advertising
4. Dassana = seeing
5. Savana = listening
6. Ghāyana = smelling
7. Sāyana = tasting
8. Phusana = touching
9. Sampaticchana = receiving
10. Santirana = investigation
11. Votthapana = determining
12. Javana = energy
13. Tadarammana = registration
14. Cuti = death.
In the commentary, a story is given to understand each of those thought moments. The story is given below;
One day, a man went to forest. When he got tired, he wants to lie down under a mango tree. This mango tree bore fruit with ripen. The man who lied down under the tree went to sleep.
Having fully covered his face he went to sleep. When he was sleeping a sound made him awaken. Then he opens his face and looks at here and there. And then sound (where the sound was). He saw a mango fruit. Have been seen the fruit he touches it and then he smells it finally he ate it. Have been eaten he went back to sleep.
According to the story, he got up hearing a sound that is Patisandhi. When he got up he would able to remember why he got up because the sound was within that is similar to Bhavanga. Avajjana is similar to look here and there. Seeing the mango fruit is the Dassana tasting the mango fruit is the Phusana. Tasting the mango is Sāyana. Sāmpaticchana means the feeling he got through the sense without any investigating. According to story doesn’t concern on the five senses but he can understand the perception through the senses he got feeling through them. I was receiving that is the characteristics of Sāmpaticchana. Then he investigated what he is receiving. For example, when he was eating the fruit he feels that it tastes. At that time he may investigate whether it is taste or not. If he feels that it is taste he should determine it. Just like this fruit is taste here then after fruit. Javana means keeping the views until it is registrar. Tadarammana means the registration at that time he conforms the death it.
Finally he went back to the sleep that is the Cutti. In this way regarding perception different interpretations were given by the time. That is why we saw interpretation indifferent different ways.
Methods of Meditation
Most of the scholars generally accepted that Abhidhamma is a philosophy without a practical path. However, in almost all Theravada countries the practice of meditation is available the first major texts of Abhidhamma, the Pakaranas do not introduce the methods of meditation. With the later development of Abhidhamma there appear texts called Abhidhamma compendiums. The texts Abhidhammāvatāra describe the methods of meditation. Abhidhammāvatāra is the oldest Abhidhamma compendiums. This introduces nine chapters to describe the meditation. Therefore, though the Pakaranas do not discuss the meditation compendiums do that.
The nine chapters of the Abhidhammāvatāra are:
1. Rûpāvacarasamādhibhāvanā = concentration of meditation form sphere.
2. Arûpāvacarasamādhibhāvanā = concentration of meditation formless sphere.
3. Abhiññā = higher knowledge
4. Abhiññārammana
5. Ditthivisuddhi = purity of view
6. Kankāvitaranavisuddhi = purity of transgressing doubt.
7. Maggāmaggañānadassanavisuddhi = path and non-path.
8. Patipadāñānadassanavisuddhi = purity of vision undeserving.
9. Ňānadassanavisuddhi = purity of vision……
The first four chapters of Abhidhammāvatāra discuss concentrative meditation or Samādhibhāvanā. And last five chapters of the texts discuss insight meditation or Paññabhāvanā.
There are other compendiums that discuss the meditation that is Abhidhammatthasangaha. The last chapter, Kammatthānasangahavibhāga introduces both methods of meditation in brief. The first end chapter of the text includes the analysis mental and material Dhamma.
Namarûpapariccheda is another compendium belongs to the Theravada tradition. This text discusses the meditation called concentrative meditation. The chapter where the mediatation is explaining:
1. Kasināsubhavibhāga = analysis of Kasina and Subha.
2. Dasānussativibhāga = analysis obtain three collections.
3. Kammatthānavibhāga = analysis of object of meditation.
4. Dasavatthuvibhāga = analysis of ten stages.
This text also follows the usual methods. The first three chapters discuss the concentrative meditation while the last two chapters discuss the insight meditation. The whole texts consist of 1855 verse around 910 stanzas describe meditation and also its analysis the mental and material Dhamma.
Saccasankhepa is another Abhidhammic compendium. In this text the useful factor relevant to practice the meditations are given. Among them Tthivisuddhi sambha visuddhi…..are noted.
According to the Abhidhammāvatāra, the five purities are considered as the trunk of tree of wisdom.
“Aggregates (Kandha), Bases (Ayatana), elements (Dhatu), faculties (Indriya), truths (Sacca), dependent originations ( Paticcasamopada)…….are the stages soil (Bhûmi) of tree of insight meditation and purity of virtue (Silavisuddhi) and purity of consciousness (Cittavisuddhi) are its root.
Purity of views (Tthivisuddhi) means the real understanding of mental and physical phenomena. The later text called Visuddhimagga further explains the Tthivisuddhi. Because it is a text out of Abhidhamma is not importance to discuss here.
Kankāvitārana is to be understood to realize manual relationship mental and physical dhamma it is importance to consider that the analysis of relation of dhamma forms one major path of Abhidhamma philosophy.
Citta, Mana and Viññāna
In early Buddhismm
In Visuddhimagga } same meaning
Atthasālini - different meaning
Book reference: Saravada 2002
In early Buddhism and in Abhidhamma, the terms Citta, Mana and Viññāna are used. The controversy faced by the Scholars is that whether these terms are equal in meaning or not.
The post-canonical text called Visuddhimagga (the path of purification) states that Citta, Mana and Viññāna are same in meaning. However, Atthasālinī states that Citta, Mana and Viññāna have their own meanings accordingly the means of the three terms are given below:
1. Citta - the consciousness is so-called because of its ideas variegated nature.
2. Mana – is so-called because it knows the measure of an object.
3. Viññāna or mental action, it is just the mind.
In another place of Atthasālinī, it further says that a single consciousness is introduced by three names such as: Mano, Viññāna and Dhātu. According to the fact, the meanings of the three terms are;
1) Mana is the mind in the sense of misery.
2) Viññāna is the consciousness in the sense of discrimination.
3) Dhātu is elements in the philosophical sense of ultimate.
Further Atthasālinī mentions that consciousness is from thinking of an object or because it is variegated. With regard to Mana, four definitions are given. They are:
1) It is mind, 2) It is the common thought resort of the other sense faculty, 3) it is a function and 4) it is faculty.
In early Buddhism, we meet Citta, Mana and Viññāna in Dhammapada the term Citta is used. Examples are given below;
1) Cittam dantam sukkhāvaham
2. Pandanam capalam cittam.
In Paddiccasamupada, Viññana is explained as one of the twelve limbs (anga). Viññāna paccayā nāma rūpam means the cause of names and forms is the Viññāna. In this sense Viññāna is the cause for the origination of name and form. With regard to five aggregates, Viññāna is the fifth. Here, the Viññāna means “Consciousness”. In Abhiddhama the meaning of the word “Citta” is also “Consciousness”. This happens because of the development of doctrinal terms. In early Buddhism what was called Viññāna becomes Citta in Abhiddhamma. However, even in the Abhiddhama tradition there is no common interpretation. In Theravāda Abhiddhamma, Citta is classified up to 89/121. But in Sārvāstivāda tradition Citta is one.
When we consider the Atthārasadhātu (18 elements); we find six kinds of Viññāna. They are:
1). Cakkhu Viññana
2) Sota – Viññana
3) Ghāna _ Viññana
4) Jīvhā _ Viññana
5) Kāya _ Viññana
6) Mana _ Viññana
According to the six senses we can understand what the Mana is. The six senses are Cakkhu, Mana. As the summery of lesson we can say that Mana represents the intellectual function of the consciousness, Viññāna represents the field of senses and their reactions, and the Citta is the subjective aspect of the consciousness. The Buddha mentions
“Yamca kho etam bhikkhave vuccati
Cittam itpi, mano itipi
Viññāņam itipi”
Therefore, the Buddha equated these three terms, Citta, Mana and Viññāņa.
The Five aggregates and the Development of Abhidhamma
How far do you accept that five aggregates develop as four ultimate realities?
Rûpa Citta 89 =121
Vedana Cetasika = 52
Saññā Rûpa = 28
Sankāra Nibhana =1
Viññāna
The Buddha has summed up all physical and mental phenomena of existence as five aggregates. Khanda Samyutta of S.N, Buddha introduced what the five aggregates are. (Whatever there exists of corporeal thing, whether past, present or future one’s own or external, gross or subtle, lofty or low, far or near, all that belong to the corporeality group (Rûpakhanda). Whatever there exists of feeling, of perception, of mental formation, of consciousness ( Vedana, Saññā, sankāra and Viññāna) all that belong to consciousness group).
According to Abhidhamma, five aggregates are the Citta, Cetasika, Rûpa and additional one is the Nibhana that is accepted by the scholars as one of the four ultimate realities. What are called individual existence are in reality nothing but mere process those mental and physical phenomena, a process that has been since time immemorial going on and that also after death will still continue unthinkingly long period of time. However, these five groups neither singly no collectively constitute any self depends real ego entity. No is there to be found any such entity a part from them.
When it considers ultimate reality, they represent absolute truth. According to Abhidhammika Paramātha saccas are fourfold such as Citta, Cetasika, Rûpa and Nibhana. According to Early Buddhism, there is only one absolute truth. That is the Nibhana. As it is given in Puppha Sutta of S.N, Buddha has given a statement which regard to two truths (Nāham bhekkhave lokena vivadāmi, yam bhikkhave atthi sammatam loke panditanam tam atthīti vadāmi….)
According to quotation Buddha has accepted two forms of nature of world: one is the existence other no existence if the wise says there is the wise says there is something Buddha accepted that. If the wise says there is nothing in the world, Buddha also accepted.
Sub-topics will ask on Examination
1. Abhidhamma is a Buddha’s teaching or not.
2. The Five Aggregates and its development.
3. Analysis and Synthesis.
4. The characteristics of Citta and Cetasika.
5. Nibbana in early Buddhism and in Abhidhamma.
6. Citta, Manna and Viññāna.
7. Theory of perception in early Buddhism and in Abhidhamma.
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